Judaism in Jesus’ Day

By James M. Rochford

One of the keys to unlocking the dynamics of the NT is to understand the different types of Jewish believers that existed at this time. Most Jews in Jesus’ day were not a part of any particular religious sect. Blomberg writes,

The vast majority of Jews in Israel were not aligned with any special group. They were ordinary farmers and fishermen, craftsmen and merchants, trying to eke out a living. They no doubt believed in the God of Israel and tried to follow the primary laws of the Old Testament faithfully, offering sacrifices in the temple in Jerusalem for the forgiveness of sins when they were able to make the trip there. But they did not concern themselves with the numerous oral traditions and additional legislation that had grown up around the Bible… The special groups probably comprised no more than 5 percent of the population of Jesus’ day.[1]

Of course, these five percent of religious Jews had a powerful influence on the rest of the 95%. In a riot, it only take 5-10 of people to influence thousands or millions. In order to understand Judaism in Jesus’ day, we should consider this five percent of highly religious Jews. These groups break down into four common sects: (1) Pharisees, (2) Sadducees, (3) Essenes, and (4) Zealots.

1. Pharisees

The Pharisees are the group that most people are aware of, because they are so popular in the pages of the NT. The name “Pharisee” probably means “separatists.”[2] This is because “of their strict avoidance of everything which might convey ceremonial impurity to them.”[3] These Jews were not only morally separate, but culturally separate as well. They refused to be Hellenized after the Maccabean Revolt.

The Pharisees were an elite sect of Jews. Josephus estimates their number at about 6,000 men (Antiquities of the Jews 16:42).

Pharisees were highly legalistic. Gundry writes,

Some rabbis in the Pharisaical tradition forbade spitting on the bare ground during the Sabbath lest the action disturb the dirt and thus constitute plowing, which would break the prohibition of working the Sabbath. A woman should not look in the mirror on the Sabbath lest she see a gray hair, be tempted to pluck it out, yield to the temptation, and thereby work on the Sabbath… Though a man should not carry his clothes in his arms out of a burning house on the Sabbath, he could put on several layers of clothing and bring them out by wearing them.[4]

F.F. Bruce writes,

In the course of their study of the law they built up a body of traditional interpretation and application of the law which in due course tended to assume a validity as sacrosanct as that of the written law itself. Later generations of rabbis, indeed, represented this oral law as coming down from Moses, who received it on Sinai equally with the written law… —from Moses to Joshua.[5]

Blomberg notes that Pharisees were legalistic, but he also notes, “In many ways Jesus was closer to the Pharisees than to any of the other Jewish sectarians; their quarrels were… ‘family’ disputes.”[6] Gonzalez notes, “To them, it was important to be faithful to the Law, and for that reason they studied and debated how the Law to be applied in every conceivable situation. This has led to the charge that they were legalistic. That may be true to a degree. But, on the other hand, one must remember that they sought to make the faith of Israel relevant to everyday situations, and to new circumstances.”[7]

The Pharisees had a high view of God’s sovereignty. F.F. Bruce writes, “They took seriously the biblical doctrine of God’s government of the universe and overruling of the actions of men for the furtherance of his own purpose. Men might disobey his laws and oppose his will, but his will would triumph no matter what they did.”[8]

The Pharisees weren’t focused on governmental control. After Alexander Jannaeus crucified 800 Pharisees at a dinner party, the Pharisees went apolitical. They did not try to overrule the Roman government; they trusted in God’s sovereignty to eventually overthrow it.

The Pharisees had a high view of Scripture. They believed in the full inspiration of Scripture, the literal resurrection, as well as angels and demons.

Passages for Further Study

Consider Jesus’ approach with Nicodemus. Ask yourself why Jesus emphasized what he did with the man.

2. Sadducees

The term “Sadducee” comes from the Hebrew saddaqim, which most likely meant “syndics” or “members of the council.”[9] These were the wealthy and influential of their day. Gonzalez writes, “By and large, they belonged to the Jewish aristocracy, and they were conservative in both politics and religion. In matters of religion, their interest centered on the Temple, which they held with the support of the Romans, who in turn found their political conservatism much to their liking.”[10] Bruce adds, “The Sadducees appear to have been confined to a few wealthy families, especially the leading priestly families, while the Pharisees enjoyed the esteem of the people at large.”[11]

The Sadducees did not believe in the entire Bible. They only believed in the first five books of the Bible (the Torah)—not the entire Bible. Blomberg writes, “They held that although all of the OT was God’s word, only doctrine that could be demonstrated to be taught in the Pentateuch was binding.”[12]

The Sadducees denied the existence of the afterlife, as well as angels and demons. Blomberg writes, “They denied immortality, resurrection, angels, and demons.”[13]

The Sadducees had a low view of God’s sovereignty. Blomberg writes, “They strongly emphasized the freedom of the human will and living as God’s people in this life.”[14] Thus they greatly conflicted with the Pharisees on this issue. Bruce writes, “As against the predestinarianism of the Pharisees they insisted on man’s freedom of choice to determine the course of affairs.”[15]

The Sadducees grew rich off of the Temple and Roman occupation. Blomberg writes, “They did not protest Roman occupation of Israel, and they largely benefited from this stance by being able to administer and profit from the temple ritual.”[16] The Sadducees assimilated with Greco-Roman culture, and this put them against the practice of the Pharisees, which was to remain separate. Shelley writes, “Many of them enjoyed the sophisticated manners and fashions of Greco-Roman culture. Some even took Greek names… At the time of Jesus, these men still controlled the high Jewish council, or Sanhedrin, but they had less influence among the common people.”[17] This is why the Sadducees virtually disappeared after the destruction of the Jewish Temple.[18]

Passages for Further Study

Matthew 22:23 Why did the Sadducees raise these objections to Jesus?

Acts 4:1 Why were the Sadducees so upset with Peter and John? What was their primary disagreement with them?

Acts 23:6-9 Why did Paul make this statement to the Pharisees and Sadducees? Why did this send the two groups into an uproar?

3. Essenes

The Essenes believed that the Temple and religious leaders in Jerusalem were incredibly corrupt and hypocritical. They believed that they were the true Israel, inheriting the New Covenant. They didn’t reject the Temple, but they rejected the people who ran the Temple. Their reaction was to withdraw from the entire mess, hoping that God would intervene with his armies under a Reigning Ruler. There were only about 4,000 in this group that had evolved from the Hasideans.

The Essenes were reclusive. Gonzalez writes, “[The Essenes] sought to obey the Law by withdrawing from the rest of society, and often had a very intense expectation that the end was near.”[19]

The Essenes were highly legalistic. Gundry writes, “Admission required a three-year probation and relinquishment of private property and wealth to a communal treasury… To maintain ritual purity, they even refrained from bowel movements on the Sabbath.”[20]

The Essenes were responsible for the Dead Sea Scrolls in Qumran. Shelley writes, “Scholars typically identify the Essenes as the occupants of the Quran community who copied ancient manuscripts and wrote commentaries. These documents, called the Dead Sea Scrolls, were discovered in 1946.”[21]

Was Jesus an Essene?

Some scholars have argued that Jesus may have studied under the Essenes during his lost years. Like the Essenes, Jesus rejected the hypocrisy of the Temple, and he focused on God’s promises to inaugurate the new covenant through the Messiah (whom the Essenes called “The Teacher of Righteousness”). Is this possible?

NT scholar and historian Gary Habermas rejects such a view on multiple grounds. Consider his arguments below:[22]

(1) Jesus opposed legalism, whereas the Essenes held strictly to it.

(2) Jesus also opposed ceremonial purity, while the Essenes, again, adhered meticulously to it.

(3) Jesus associated with common people and “sinners,” whereas such activity was appalling to the Essenes.

(4) The sinlessness of Jesus is in contrast to the Essene teaching that even the Messiah would be purified from sin by suffering.

(5) Jesus combined several messianic aspects, while the Qumran community was looking for two (or even three) different messiahs.

(6) Jesus did not teach a strong hierarchy among his followers, while the Essenes imposed strict social rules.

(7) Jesus’ group was open, but the Essene community was closed.

(8) Jesus’ ministry was public, while the Essenes were very private.

(9) Jesus’ teachings were oral, whereas the Essenes emphasized writing and copying.

(10) Jesus’ manner of teaching was clear, not obtuse as in the Dead Sea Scrolls.

(11) Jesus had no formal training, in contrast to those from the Qumran community.

(12) Healing was a major part of Jesus’ ministry, but this aspect was not emphasized at Qumran.

(13) The teaching of love was Jesus’ major ethical message, but does not appear in Essene teachings.

(14) Jesus’ ethics are closer to Rabbinic literature than to Qumran.

(15) Jesus had a more positive admiration for the Old Testament prophets than did the Essenes.

(16) Jesus did not emphasize angelology as much as did the Qumran community.

(17) Jesus’ central teaching was the Kingdom of God, whereas the Essenes give little or no place to the concept.

(18) For Jesus, salvation was straightforward, while the Essenes had an elaborate initiation system.

(19) Jesus taught that salvation would also be extended to the Gentiles while the Essenes were more exlusivistic.

(20) Jesus was missionary-minded, while the Essenes were not.

(21) According to Josephus, the Essenes taught the immortality of the soul, in contrast to the Christian teaching of the resurrection of the body.

Based on this evidence, we feel confident that Jesus was not an Essene.

Passages for Further Study

The Essenes are not mentioned anywhere in the NT. Why do you think that the Essenes were never mentioned? Can you consider any reason for this?

Likewise, why didn’t the Essene documents mention any New Testament events or writings?

4. Zealots

The Zealots get their name from the “zealous” believers during the Maccabean Revolt, who rebelled against the Pagan Greeks. Many believe it comes from Mattathias who cried out, “Let everyone who is zealous for the law and supports the covenant come out with me!” (1 Macc. 2:24-27) The Zealots were fighters. They resented the fact that the Pagan Romans had invaded the holy nation of Israel—God’s nation, and they sought to kick them out the way that their ancestors (the Maccabees) had done. Blomberg writes, “The Zealots had hoped they could repeat the Maccabean miracle and were convinced that God would honor military efforts to overthrow Rome, but they turned out to be tragically mistaken.”[23]

The Zealots performed assassinations on Jews who were sympathetic to Roman occupation. We might think of these men as the Irish assassins in movies like Michael Collins with Liam Neeson (1996). They would appear from the crowds to assassinate a Jewish political leader, and then they would immediately blend back into obscurity. Bruce writes, “Extremists in the resistance party began to mingle with crowds in Jerusalem during festivals and similar occasions and stab the objects of their displeasure with daggers (sicae) which they carried concealed about their clothes; they would then melt immediately into the surrounding crowds. Jewish leaders who were suspected of being hand-in-glove with the Romans, or at least insufficiently sympathetic to the patriotic cause, were the principal targets for such attacks.”[24]

The Zealots were incredibly tenacious to their cause. Bruce writes, “Under every form of torture, none of the sicarii who were taken captive, whether young or old, could be compelled to acknowledge Caesar as lord.”[25]

Political revolution hit its breaking point in AD 66. Shelley writes, “The completion of the Jewish temple in AD 64 put thousands of laborers out of work, adding to the general discontent. Finally in AD 66 the Jews revolted, signaling their intent by refusing to perform the daily sacrifice for the emperor.”[26] Josephus blamed the destruction of the Temple in AD 70 on the Zealots.[27]

NT Passages for Further Study

Mark 15:17 & John 18:40 The men next to Jesus on crosses were probably Zealots. Bruce writes, “When Barabbas, and the two men crucified along with Jesus, are called listai in the Gospels (John 18:40; Mark15:27), we understand by the term not ordinary robbers but insurgents against the occupying power; this, indeed, is expressly indicated in the case of Barabbas when Mark tells us that he was ‘among the rebels in prison, who had committed murder in the insurrection’ (Mark 15:7), and it explains his popularity with the Jerusalem crowd, who clamoured for his release.”[28]

Four Types of Judaism
Jewish Sect	Pharisees	Sadducees	Essenes	Zealots
Reaction to the Romans	*WAITED* for God to remove Roman occupation	Grew *WEALTHY* on Roman occupation	*WITHDREW* to Qumran during Roman occupation	*WARRED* with the Roman occupation
Differences with Jesus	Emphasis on the *RULES*	Denial of *RESURRECTION*	Left Jerusalem and became *RECLUSIVE*	Reacted to the Romans by causing violent *REVOLUTION*

Evidence Unseen

Judaism in Jesus’ Day

1. Pharisees

Passages for Further Study

2. Sadducees

Passages for Further Study

3. Essenes

Was Jesus an Essene?

Passages for Further Study

4. Zealots

NT Passages for Further Study

Four Types of Judaism

Jewish Sect

Pharisees

Sadducees

Essenes

Zealots

Reaction to the Romans

Differences with Jesus

Further Reading