Unless otherwise stated, all citations are taken from the New American Standard Bible (NASB).
John mentioned Babylon earlier (Rev. 14:8; 16:19). In these two chapters, we see a full treatment of the rise and fall of Babylon. The same angel introduces both the “great harlot” (Rev. 17:1) as well as the “bride of Christ” (Rev. 21:9). Mounce writes, “The connection is not accidental. When the great prostitute with all her seductive allurements is exposed and destroyed, then the Bride of Christ will be seen in all her beauty and true worth.”[1]
The great harlot
(17:1) “Then one of the seven angels who had the seven bowls came and spoke with me, saying, ‘Come here, I will show you the judgment of the great harlot who sits on many waters.’”
“Come here, I will show you.” This same expression introduces the Church—the Bride of Christ (Rev. 21:9). This identical introduction to both images shows the contrast between the two. The great harlot is a cheap substitute for God’s people. Before the harlot’s description, the angel tells us about her downfall and inescapable “judgment.” Thus, right from the start, we know that she is doomed to die.
“The great harlot.” The woman is later identified as identical to “Babylon the Great” (v.5). But what does John mean by “Babylon”? We are inclined to interpret the “harlot” and “Babylon” as symbols for the world-system (kosmos). Throughout chapters 17-18, the woman is obsessed with wealth and decadence (Rev. 17:4), which is consistent with the world-system (1 Jn. 2:15-17). Later, John writes, “The kings of the earth have committed acts of immorality with her, and the merchants of the earth have become rich by the wealth of her sensuality” (Rev. 18:3). For these reasons, we understand Babylon as the final world empire—the world-system at its bitter end (see our earlier article, “The World-System”).
“Sits on many waters.” In Revelation, the “sea” or “waters” are symbols for hostile humanity in opposition to God (Ps. 18:4, 16; 124:4; Isa. 8:7; Jer. 47:2). Later we read that the “waters” are “peoples and multitudes and nations and tongues” (v.15). Babylon rules over all of these nations.
Alternate interpretations
Morris understands Babylon as symbolic OT imagery that describes a future and literal “world empire exercising dominion over many subject nations.”[2]
Mounce understands Babylon as “Rome.” Yet this doesn’t preclude a future fulfillment as well. He adds, “At the close of history the great prostitute stands as the final and intensified expression of worldly power.”[3] Later, he writes, “Babylon the Great… is more than first-century Rome. Every great center of power that has prostituted its wealth and influence restores to life the spirit of ancient Babylon.[4]
(17:2) “With whom the kings of the earth committed acts of immorality, and those who dwell on the earth were made drunk with the wine of her immorality.”
The rulers of the world were infatuated with the “harlot” (i.e. Babylon). This could refer to the world-system, idolatrous religion, or likely a synergy of both. Consequently, people on earth were sucked into their unspiritual vortex as well. After all, if the world rulers are following Satan, then the people will follow them.
(17:3) “And he carried me away in the Spirit into a wilderness; and I saw a woman sitting on a scarlet beast, full of blasphemous names, having seven heads and ten horns.”
“He carried me away in the Spirit into a wilderness.” When we’re immersed in the world-system, we cannot grasp its reality. This could explain why John is taken far away to see the reality of the woman for what she really is.
“Woman sitting on a scarlet beast.” In chapter 12, the “woman” in the “wilderness” was Israel. Here, the woman is the harlot.
“Scarlet beast.” This refers to the Antichrist or the “beast” mentioned in Revelation 13. Both have the same name, and both possess “seven heads and ten horns.” However, the “beast” rules over the reunited Roman Empire. So, both the man and the empire are likely in view—especially as we see this chapter unfold.
“Seven heads.” These head refer to the great world empires throughout history. Later, John writes, “The seven heads are seven mountains on which the woman sits, and they are seven kings; five have fallen, one is, the other has not yet come; and when he comes, he must remain a little while” (vv.9-10). The symbol of “mountains” regularly refers to empires in Scripture (Ps. 30:7; 68:15-16; Isa. 2:2; 41:15; Jer. 51:25; Dan. 2:35; Hab. 3:6, 10; Zech. 4:7). Therefore, John is most likely thinking of the central world empires throughout history: Egypt, Assyria, Babylon, Media-Persia, Greece, Rome, and Future Rome. The first five were gone when John wrote (“five have fallen”), the Roman Empire still existed when John was writing (“one is”), and the Future Roman Empire had not yet arrived (“has not yet come”).
“Ten horns.” Later, John explains this imagery: “The ten horns which you saw are ten kings who have not yet received a kingdom, but they receive authority as kings with the beast for one hour” (v.12). These refer to ten kings who rule ten kingdoms during the time of the Antichrist. They will rule alongside of him at the end of history.
Alternate interpretation
Mounce alludes to a Preterist reading of the text: “The reference is to the blasphemous claims to deity made by Roman emperors, who employed such titles as theios (divine), sōtēr (savior), and kyrios (lord).”[5]
(17:4) “The woman was clothed in purple and scarlet, and adorned with gold and precious stones and pearls, having in her hand a gold cup full of abominations and of the unclean things of her immorality.”
The decadence of the harlot once again points toward materialism and the world-system. This is in contrast to the Bride of Christ who wears “fine linen, bright and clean” (Rev. 19:8).
(17:5) “And on her forehead a name was written, a mystery, “BABYLON THE GREAT, THE MOTHER OF HARLOTS AND OF THE ABOMINATIONS OF THE EARTH.”
(Rev. 17:5) What is the mystery of Babylon? The NIV and KJV render the term “mystery” (mystērion) as an adjective describing Babylon (“Mystery Babylon…”). This is a poor translation. The word “mystery” (mystērion) is a noun—not an adverb. Thus, the NLT renders this far better: “A mysterious name was written on her forehead: ‘Babylon the Great.’”
(17:6) “And I saw the woman drunk with the blood of the saints, and with the blood of the witnesses of Jesus. When I saw her, I wondered greatly.”
Whoever the woman is, she is diametrically opposed to believers in Jesus. She persecutes them with vivid and horrific imagery (“drunk with the blood of the saints”). This must refer to the fact that the Beast (on whom she sits) kills followers of Jesus (Rev. 13:7, 15).
“When I saw her, I wondered greatly.” If you’re confused by the identity of this woman, you’re in good company: So was John.
Interpretation of the vision
(17:7-8) “And the angel said to me, ‘Why do you wonder? I will tell you the mystery of the woman and of the beast that carries her, which has the seven heads and the ten horns. 8 The beast that you saw was, and is not, and is about to come up out of the abyss and go to destruction. And those who dwell on the earth, whose name has not been written in the book of life from the foundation of the world, will wonder when they see the beast, that he was and is not and will come.”
“Was… is not… is about to come.” John uses all three tenses to describe the beast. Thomas[6] and Hitchcock think this refers to the death and resurrection of the Antichrist—the “beast” (Rev. 13:3, 12, 14). However, as we argued earlier, we hold that this refers to the future Roman Empire. After all, the “beast” rules over the reunited Roman Empire, and therefore, he represents the Empire. Morris writes, “There is but one mystery for these two. They belong intimately together and to know the one is to know the other.”[7] Moreover, he writes, “It is not easy to understand all that we are told, in part at any rate because the symbolism seems to have more than one meaning. Sometimes the beast is the ruler, sometimes he is the kingdom (cf. v. 9).”[8]
(17:9-10) “Here is the mind which has wisdom. The seven heads are seven mountains on which the woman sits, 10 and they are seven kings; five have fallen, one is, the other has not yet come; and when he comes, he must remain a little while.”
(Rev. 17:9) Are the “seven hills” an allusion to ancient Rome? Some commentators argue vehemently that John’s mention of the “seven hills” (Rev. 17:9 NIV) is a clear allusion to Rome. However, in verse 10, we read that the mountains are “seven kings.” If the author interprets the symbolism for us, we shouldn’t give a contrary interpretation of the authorial symbolism. Moreover, the word for “hills” (oros) should actually be rendered “mountains” (see NASB, ESV). This, of course, spoils the view that this refers to Rome. Finally, if this symbol refers to Rome, why would it require special wisdom? Commentators shoot themselves in the foot when they claim that it would’ve been obvious to anyone that this refers to Rome, but then, it requires special wisdom to understand this. In our view, these “mountains” refer to world empires (Ps. 30:7; Zech. 4:7; Jer. 51:25; Dan. 2:35).
(Rev. 17:10) Who are the seven kings? Roman Emperors or World Empires? At the time John wrote this, Egypt, Assyria, Babylon, Media-Persia, and Greece were in the past (“five have fallen”). Rome was currently in power (“one is”). And the kingdom of the Antichrist will occur in the still future (“the other has not yet come”).
“They are seven kings.” Much like Daniel, John seems to be conflating these kings with their kingdoms (Dan. 7:17, 23).
(17:11) “The beast which was and is not, is himself also an eighth and is one of the seven, and he goes to destruction.”
The beast (i.e. the Antichrist) leads an eighth kingdom, dominating the reunited Roman Empire. Yet, at this point, he hasn’t arisen yet (“The beast… is about to come up out of the abyss and go to destruction,” v.8).
(17:12) “The ten horns which you saw are ten kings who have not yet received a kingdom, but they receive authority as kings with the beast for one hour.”
The “ten kings” haven’t come to power yet (Dan. 7:24). They will rule contemporaneously with the “beast,” not sequentially like the seven kings (or seven kingdoms). They will come to power for only a brief time (“one hour”). Morris writes, “To us they may appear great, but to God they reign but for one unimportant hour.”[9]
(17:13) “These have one purpose, and they give their power and authority to the beast.”
The “ten kings” sign over their political resources to empower the “beast.” This could refer to a treaty of some kind or a political conglomerate. Perhaps, they support the “beast” through material or military means.
(17:14) “These will wage war against the Lamb, and the Lamb will overcome them, because He is Lord of lords and King of kings, and those who are with Him are the called and chosen and faithful.”
The “ten kings” and the “beast” will try to overcome Jesus at the battle of Armageddon (Rev. 16:14; 19:19-21). Bad move! They will fail miserably.
(17:15) “And he said to me, ‘The waters which you saw where the harlot sits, are peoples and multitudes and nations and tongues.’”
See verse 1.
(17:16) “And the ten horns which you saw, and the beast, these will hate the harlot and will make her desolate and naked, and will eat her flesh and will burn her up with fire.”
The ten kings and the beast turn on the harlot. What does this mean? How can they turn on the world-system? Surely there is symbolism in this language because the harlot herself became “drunk on the blood of the saints” (Rev. 17:6). The fact that they grow to “hate” the world-system implies that they were let down by it. Formerly, they took comfort from their wealth and power. But when they face King Jesus, none of this came to their protection. The language of “eating her flesh” might refer to a massive consumption of the world-system’s resources, and “burning her up with fire” seems to refer to the utter destruction of the world-system.
It seems odd that the evil kings would turn on the evil harlot. Aren’t both on the same side, living in rebellion to God? Yet, Morris offers wise insight on this matter: “It is easy to think of the forces of evil as one united phalanx. But there is no cohesion in evil; it is always self-destructive. Wicked men are not just one happy band of brothers. Being wicked, they act in jealousy and hatred. At the climax their mutual hatreds will result in mutual destruction.”[10]
Hitchcock understands this to refer to the destruction of the literal city of Babylon. To be clear, the Beast will destroy the religious-system of Babylon, while God destroys the commercial-system of Babylon (Rev. 18). People will rejoice over the destruction of the religious-system (Rev. 17), but they will mourn over the commercial-system (Rev. 18).
(17:17-18) “For God has put it in their hearts to execute His purpose by having a common purpose, and by giving their kingdom to the beast, until the words of God will be fulfilled. 18 The woman whom you saw is the great city, which reigns over the kings of the earth.”
“God has put it in their hearts to execute His purpose by having a common purpose.” God doesn’t override their free will. Instead, both God and humans have a “common purpose.” The net result of their decision is to give power to the beast.
“Until the words of God will be fulfilled.” While the world is ending, it will feel to many like God has lost control. Not true! All of this has been predicted for us in advance. We might not understand all of the details perfectly, but the main message is clear. This chapter shows the fate of humanity in rebellion from God. Why would we buy into the world-system if we know its horrible fate? The entire world-system is going to go up in smoke, and there is no good reason to invest in it.
“The woman whom you saw is the great city.” So far, we have taken “Babylon” to symbolically refer to the world-system. This verse, however, is good evidence in favor of a literal city (a reconstructed Babylon in Iraq). One rejoinder is that Babylon is a literal city that represents the world-system. This is similar to saying that “Washington” represents the United States or “Moscow” refers to Russia. We’re not sure.
Questions for Reflection
Who is the harlot? What does the harlot think about herself? (read Rev. 18:7-8)
What is Babylon the Great?
Who is the beast?
What is the relationship between the harlot and the beast?
Some interpreters think that Babylon is a literal city. What evidence do they have in their favor? If Babylon is a literal city, could this harmonize with the idea that Babylon refers to the world-system?
Some interpreters think that Babylon is symbolic for Jerusalem, which is at the center of the Antichrist’s political activity. As you read through Revelation, what evidence supports this theory? (HINT: Look for every reference to a “city” or the “great city” in Revelation.)
Revelation 18 (The Fall of the World System)
John uses the language of the OT prophets for the destruction of ancient cities like Tyre, Ninevah, or ancient Babylon (Ezek. 26-28; Isa. 13-14, 21; Jer. 50-51). However, John is “thinking not of the fall of one city or empire but of the collapse of civilization.”[11] This fits with our thesis that John is describing the world-system, not a literal city.
(18:1) “After these things I saw another angel coming down from heaven, having great authority, and the earth was illumined with his glory.”
This is chronologically after Revelation 17 (“After these things…”). This other angel fills the planet with his own glory. This is odd because we typically think of God’s glory filling the Earth.
(18:2) “And he cried out with a mighty voice, saying, ‘Fallen, fallen is Babylon the great! She has become a dwelling place of demons and a prison of every unclean spirit, and a prison of every unclean and hateful bird.’”
Babylon becomes a locus of demonic activity. Because Satan runs the world-system (2 Cor. 4:4; 1 Jn. 5:19), it only makes sense that his kingdom would be teeming with “demons” and “unclean spirits” in the end.
Why does he mention “unclean and hateful birds”? Birds were considered unclean animals in the OT dietary laws, and they are mentioned in the next chapter as feeding on the corpses of the dead (Rev. 19:17, 21). Birds also represent desolation in the OT (Isa. 34:11), specifically for Babylon (Jer. 50:39). Thomas writes, “The evil spirits hover over the fallen city like night-birds waiting for their prey. The former thriving metropolis has become a wilderness.”[12]
Why is Babylon described as being already “fallen” if this refers to the future? This is another case of prolepsis (see comments on Revelation 14). Morris writes, “The city’s doom is still future but it is so certain that it can be spoken of as already accomplished.”[13]
Is Babylon a literal city? Thomas[14] that’s a “both/and” approach. Babylon never faced sudden and permanent destruction as the OT predicts (Isa. 47:11; 51:8), and it has had one city or another living in it until fairly recently. Thus, Thomas holds that Babylon will be a literal city, as well as the epicenter of economic trade for the world-system. When it falls, the world-system will fall with it.
(18:3) “For all the nations have drunk of the wine of the passion of her immorality, and the kings of the earth have committed acts of immorality with her, and the merchants of the earth have become rich by the wealth of her sensuality.”
The key sin in Babylon was decadence (Rev. 17:4). Again, this seems to be describing the allure of the world-system—a topic John writes so much about (cf. 1 Jn. 2:15-17).
(18:4) “I heard another voice from heaven, saying, ‘Come out of her, my people, so that you will not participate in her sins and receive of her plagues.’”
God doesn’t call them to renovate Babylon, but to vacate Babylon.
(18:5) “For her sins have piled up as high as heaven, and God has remembered her iniquities.”
The people were going along thinking God didn’t care about their materialism and idolatry. But in reality, he was taking note of everything and waiting to judge them (“remembered her iniquities”). God didn’t refrain from judgment because he was weak, but because he was patient. Peter writes, “The Lord is not slow about His promise, as some count slowness, but is patient toward you, not wishing for any to perish but for all to come to repentance” (2 Pet. 3:9).
“Her sins have piled up as high as heaven.” The original Babylon was ancient Babel. The people of Babel boasted, “Let us build for ourselves a city, and a tower whose top will reach into heaven, and let us make for ourselves a name” (Gen. 11:4). Of course, this project was doomed, and God dispersed the people by confusing their language. John seems to be alluding to this prideful and autonomous act of humanity by making a parody out of it. Instead of “reaching into heaven” (Gen. 11:4), the people’s “sins have piled up as high as heaven.” This is a reference “to the use of bricks in building the tower of Babel where the destitute career of ancient Babylon began.”[15]
(18:6) “Pay her back even as she has paid, and give back to her double according to her deeds; in the cup which she has mixed, mix twice as much for her.”
Paying back “double” seems like a case of literary amplification. This demonstrates the severity of the judgment, and a “punishment in full measure.”[16] We see similar examples in the OT that refer to forgiveness being given in “double” measure: “[Israel’s] sin has been paid for, that she has received from the LORD’s hand double for all her sins” (Isa. 40:2 NIV). Though, others state that this could simply be a way to describe their sins being paid in full (Ex. 22:4, 7, 9; Isa. 40:2; 61:7; Jer. 16:18; 17:18; Zech. 9:12). Thomas writes, “Double has the sense that the punishment should be the exact equivalent of the offence in the same way that a person who looks exactly like someone else is called his ‘double.’”[17]
(18:7) “To the degree that she glorified herself and lived sensuously, to the same degree give her torment and mourning; for she says in her heart, ‘I sit as a queen and I am not a widow, and will never see mourning.’”
The thinking of the world-system is utterly self-deceived. The woman thinks that she’s a “queen” when actually she is on the verge of judgment. She thought she would live “happily ever after,” but in reality, she will soon face “torment” and “mourning” (cf. Isa. 47:7-8). The key problem with Babylon was that she thought she could live a life of self-glorification and sensuality forever—never believing that judgment would come. Those caught up in the world-system never think it’s going to come to an end either—even though it’s as plain as day that this is where it’s all heading (1 Jn. 2:17).
(18:8) “For this reason in one day her plagues will come, pestilence and mourning and famine, and she will be burned up with fire; for the Lord God who judges her is strong.”
God will come and bring judgment quickly. The world-system seems to be going along just fine, but it will all suddenly collapse in judgment. Those who invested in the world-system will see it all crumble to ashes and go up in smoke.
Kings
(18:9-10) “And the kings of the earth, who committed acts of immorality and lived sensuously with her, will weep and lament over her when they see the smoke of her burning, 10 standing at a distance because of the fear of her torment, saying, ‘Woe, woe, the great city, Babylon, the strong city! For in one hour your judgment has come.’”
Because the kings invested so heavily in Babylon, they will face abject trauma when the see God judge her. Imagine seeing your life’s work crumble in “one hour,” right before your very eyes. They moan about the devastation of the world-system like a bad breakup. Even as they see the world-system collapsing, they “weep and lament” over it. Yet, they don’t care for the harlot herself, but only “what they could get out of her.”[18] They don’t come near to comfort her in death, but “stand at a distance.”
Merchants
(18:11-13) “And the merchants of the earth weep and mourn over her, because no one buys their cargoes any more— 12 cargoes of gold and silver and precious stones and pearls and fine linen and purple and silk and scarlet, and every kind of citron wood and every article of ivory and every article made from very costly wood and bronze and iron and marble, 13 and cinnamon and spice and incense and perfume and frankincense and wine and olive oil and fine flour and wheat and cattle and sheep, and cargoes of horses and chariots and slaves and human lives.”
These are further descriptions that support the thought that Babylon is primarily based on the foundation of materialism, decadence, and sensuality.
“No one buys their cargoes any more.” The Antichrist will decree that “no one will be able to buy or to sell, except the one who has the mark, either the name of the beast or the number of his name” (Rev. 13:17). Thomas notes the irony: “These merchants belonged to a system that denied the right to buy or sell to anyone who refused to accept the mark of the beast.”[19]
“Slaves and human lives.” Literally refers to “bodies” (somatōn) and “human lives” (psychas anthrōpōn). This could be rendered “bodies—even human lives.” Thomas writes, “Their emphatic position at the end of the list is a comment on the whole list regarding the inhuman brutality and contempt for human life on which the city’s prosperity rests.”[20]
These merchants are weeping and depressed saying, “This is terrible for the economy! Nobody is buying our people anymore!” The human chattel is named right alongside the other property. This only shows the moral insanity of falling into the trap of the world-system.
(18:14) “The fruit you long for has gone from you, and all things that were luxurious and splendid have passed away from you and men will no longer find them.”
“Passed away.” Elsewhere, John writes, “The world is passing away, and also its lusts; but the one who does the will of God lives forever” (1 Jn. 2:17).
(18:15-19) “The merchants of these things, who became rich from her, will stand at a distance because of the fear of her torment, weeping and mourning, 16 saying, ‘Woe, woe, the great city, she who was clothed in fine linen and purple and scarlet, and adorned with gold and precious stones and pearls; 17 for in one hour such great wealth has been laid waste!’ And every shipmaster and every passenger and sailor, and as many as make their living by the sea, stood at a distance, 18 and were crying out as they saw the smoke of her burning, saying, ‘What city is like the great city?’ 19 And they threw dust on their heads and were crying out, weeping and mourning, saying, ‘Woe, woe, the great city, in which all who had ships at sea became rich by her wealth, for in one hour she has been laid waste!’”
The merchants weep just like the kings of the earth (vv.9-10). While the kings weep over the loss of strength in the city (v.9), the merchants weep over the loss of wealth. The merchants keep repeating the same statements—almost as if they are in shock. But really, couldn’t they see this coming? The world-system couldn’t last forever. Why should they (or we) be shocked?
(18:20) “Rejoice over her, O heaven, and you saints and apostles and prophets, because God has pronounced judgment for you against her.”
While those obsessed with the world-system are weeping, God’s people are rejoicing. Indeed, the same term “rejoice” (euphrainou) occurred earlier to refer to the people “rejoicing” over the death of the two witnesses (Rev. 11:10). Thus, the reason that Heaven rejoices at this judgment is because Babylon persecuted believers (cf. v.24). God’s judgment is the answer to the question of the martyred believers earlier in the book: “How long, O Lord, holy and true, will You refrain from judging and avenging our blood on those who dwell on the earth?” (Rev. 6:10)
(18:21) “Then a strong angel took up a stone like a great millstone and threw it into the sea, saying, ‘So will Babylon, the great city, be thrown down with violence, and will not be found any longer.’”
Babylon will be destroyed much like a millstone falling to the bottom of the sea. This implies total and complete destruction.
(18:22-23) “And the sound of harpists and musicians and flute-players and trumpeters will not be heard in you any longer; and no craftsman of any craft will be found in you any longer; and the sound of a mill will not be heard in you any longer; 23 and the light of a lamp will not shine in you any longer; and the voice of the bridegroom and bride will not be heard in you any longer; for your merchants were the great men of the earth, because all the nations were deceived by your sorcery.”
All of these things are not intrinsically bad (with the exception of being “deceived by your sorcery”). But because these people lived in decadence, God will wipe all of it away:
- “the sound of harpists and musicians and flute-players and trumpeters”
- “craftsman of any craft”
- “the sound of a mill”
- “the light of a lamp
- “the bridegroom and bride”
The reason God will remove all of these things is because of the polluting and deceiving influence of materialism and opulence in Babylon (“all the nations were deceived by your sorcery”). People don’t think of the world-system as devil worship, but this is the imagery being ascribed to it.
(18:24) “And in her was found the blood of prophets and of saints and of all who have been slain on the earth.”
This flashes back to an earlier pronouncement against Babylon: “I saw the woman drunk with the blood of the saints” (Rev. 17:6). The world-system was not kind or even neutral to Christians; it took their lives. This is another clear reason for God’s judgment.
Questions for Reflection
As Babylon is crumbling, what is the reaction of the kings (vv.9-10)?
What is the reaction of the merchants (vv.11-17)?
What does their reaction tell us about them?
[1] Robert H. Mounce, The Book of Revelation, The New International Commentary on the New Testament (Grand Rapids, MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1997), 308.
[2] Leon Morris, Revelation: An Introduction and Commentary, vol. 20, Tyndale New Testament Commentaries (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1987), 196.
[3] Robert H. Mounce, The Book of Revelation, The New International Commentary on the New Testament (Grand Rapids, MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1997), 308.
[4] Robert H. Mounce, The Book of Revelation, The New International Commentary on the New Testament (Grand Rapids, MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1997), 321.
[5] Robert H. Mounce, The Book of Revelation, The New International Commentary on the New Testament (Grand Rapids, MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1997), 310.
[6] Robert L. Thomas, Revelation 8-22: An Exegetical Commentary (Chicago: Moody Publishers, 1995), 292.
[7] Leon Morris, Revelation: An Introduction and Commentary, vol. 20, Tyndale New Testament Commentaries (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1987), 199.
[8] Leon Morris, Revelation: An Introduction and Commentary, vol. 20, Tyndale New Testament Commentaries (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1987), 200.
[9] Leon Morris, Revelation: An Introduction and Commentary, vol. 20, Tyndale New Testament Commentaries (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1987), 203.
[10] Leon Morris, Revelation: An Introduction and Commentary, vol. 20, Tyndale New Testament Commentaries (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1987), 204.
[11] Leon Morris, Revelation: An Introduction and Commentary, vol. 20, Tyndale New Testament Commentaries (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1987), 205.
[12] Robert L. Thomas, Revelation 8-22: An Exegetical Commentary (Chicago: Moody Publishers, 1995), 318.
[13] Leon Morris, Revelation: An Introduction and Commentary, vol. 20, Tyndale New Testament Commentaries (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1987), 206.
[14] Robert L. Thomas, Revelation 8-22: An Exegetical Commentary (Chicago: Moody Publishers, 1995), 317.
[15] Robert L. Thomas, Revelation 8-22: An Exegetical Commentary (Chicago: Moody Publishers, 1995), 321.
[16] Leon Morris, Revelation: An Introduction and Commentary, vol. 20, Tyndale New Testament Commentaries (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1987), 208.
[17] Robert L. Thomas, Revelation 8-22: An Exegetical Commentary (Chicago: Moody Publishers, 1995), 324.
[18] Leon Morris, Revelation: An Introduction and Commentary, vol. 20, Tyndale New Testament Commentaries (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1987), 209.
[19] Robert L. Thomas, Revelation 8-22: An Exegetical Commentary (Chicago: Moody Publishers, 1995), 330.
[20] Robert L. Thomas, Revelation 8-22: An Exegetical Commentary (Chicago: Moody Publishers, 1995), 336.